Ivory is the dense dentine of tusks and teeth, most often from elephants. It was carved into jewelry, beads and decorative objects for thousands of years. Since 1989, international trade in African elephant ivory has been banned under CITES, and many countries have since restricted domestic trade too. Mammoth ivory from frozen ground in Siberia is legal in many places but restricted in some. This page covers ivory from a historical and identification point of view and is not legal advice.
What ivory is
Ivory is mostly dentine, a hard tissue made of the mineral hydroxyapatite bound with collagen. Elephant tusks are enlarged incisor teeth that grow throughout the animal's life. Other animals also produce ivory: hippopotamus teeth, walrus tusks, sperm whale and orca teeth, narwhal tusks and warthog tusks. Each has its own structure and appearance.
Ivory is soft, about 2.5 on the Mohs hardness scale, with a specific gravity of roughly 1.7 to 1.9. It has a creamy white to yellowish color and a soft, waxy luster when polished. It is fairly tough, which let carvers make thin, detailed work. Ivory is one of the organic gems, a group of materials produced by living things.
Ivory in history
People carved ivory long before they worked metal. Mammoth ivory figures and beads from Ice Age Europe are among the oldest known artworks, and the page on prehistoric jewelry covers early ornaments made from bone and ivory. Egyptian, Assyrian, Greek and Roman artisans used elephant and hippopotamus ivory for inlay, figures and jewelry.
Ivory carving reached a high level in medieval Europe, in China and in Japan, where small carved toggles called netsuke were often made of ivory. In the 19th century, ivory was used widely for brooches, bangles, beads, combs, piano keyboards and billiard balls. Victorian brooches carved with flowers, often from Dieppe in France, are common antique pieces. The page on jewelry of East and Southeast Asia describes some Asian traditions.
The ivory trade and the law
Large-scale hunting for ivory caused severe declines in elephant populations, especially in the 1970s and 1980s. In response, CITES, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species, moved the African elephant to Appendix I in 1989. The listing took effect in 1990 and ended most legal international commercial trade in African elephant ivory. The Asian elephant was already listed on Appendix I.
Later decisions moved some southern African elephant populations to Appendix II and allowed a small number of controlled one-off sales of stockpiled ivory. These decisions were debated, and international commercial trade remains closed.
Many countries have since gone further and restricted domestic trade as well. Over the 2010s and early 2020s, the United States, China, the United Kingdom, the European Union and others adopted tighter rules on buying and selling elephant ivory within their borders. The details differ. Some laws make exceptions for antiques that meet age and documentation requirements, for musical instruments, or for items with only a small amount of ivory. Several US states have their own laws, and some of these also cover mammoth ivory and other species.
Laws in this area change and vary widely. Anyone who owns, inherits, sells, ships or travels with ivory should check the current rules in each place involved, or ask a specialist. Older pieces often need documentation of age and origin to be sold legally.
Mammoth ivory
Woolly mammoths died out thousands of years ago, and their tusks survive in permafrost in Siberia, Alaska and Canada. As the ground thaws and erodes, tusks are exposed, and people collect them. Because mammoths are extinct, mammoth ivory is not covered by CITES, and its trade is legal in many countries.
Mammoth ivory is sometimes stained brown, blue or green on the outside from minerals in the soil. Pieces that keep this colored outer layer, called the rind or bark, are prized for jewelry and knife handles. Some places restrict mammoth ivory because it can be hard for officials to tell it from elephant ivory.
Schreger lines
Elephant and mammoth ivory both show a cross-hatched pattern of curved lines when cut across the tusk. These are called Schreger lines. They form a pattern of intersecting arcs, sometimes compared to engine turning on a watch case.
The angle at which the lines cross helps separate the two:
| Feature | Elephant ivory | Mammoth ivory |
|---|---|---|
| Schreger angle near outer edge | Usually over 115 degrees | Usually under 90 degrees |
| Typical color | Creamy white to yellow | Creamy white, often with stained rind |
| Legal status | Heavily restricted | Legal in many places, restricted in some |
Measuring Schreger angles needs a clean cross-section and some practice. The pattern is not visible on every carved surface. A lab can confirm identification with microscopy and other methods.
Imitations and look-alikes
Many materials have been used to imitate ivory or are confused with it.
- Bone: shows tiny dark pits or channels, called Haversian canals, that look like specks or short lines.
- Vegetable ivory: the hard seed of the tagua palm, carved into buttons and small items. It shows a fine cellular structure under magnification.
- Celluloid: an early plastic, sometimes sold as French ivory. It often shows regular parallel lines meant to imitate grain.
- Modern plastics and resins: molded imitations often lack natural grain and feel lighter.
- Other teeth and tusks: hippo, walrus and whale ivory have their own structures and may also be restricted.
A hot needle test, sometimes suggested to separate plastic from ivory, damages the piece and is not recommended. The page on identifying gemstones explains when to use a lab, and the page on gemological instruments describes the tools involved.
Caring for ivory pieces
Ivory is sensitive to heat, dryness, humidity changes and light. It can crack, warp or yellow over time. Keep ivory pieces away from direct sun and heat sources, and avoid soaking them in water. Wipe them with a soft, dry or barely damp cloth. Do not use ultrasonic or steam cleaners. The page on cleaning jewelry safely covers other delicate organic materials, and mother-of-pearl is one material often used in place of ivory for inlay and buttons.
Frequently asked questions
When was the international ivory trade banned?
CITES placed the African elephant on Appendix I in 1989, effective in 1990. That ended most legal international commercial trade in African elephant ivory.
Is mammoth ivory legal?
Mammoth ivory is not covered by CITES and is legal to trade in many countries. Some states and countries restrict it, so check the local rules.
How can you tell elephant ivory from mammoth ivory?
The angle of the Schreger lines on a cross-section helps: elephant ivory usually shows wider angles near the outer edge, and mammoth ivory narrower ones. A lab can confirm it.
How do you tell ivory from bone?
Bone shows small dark pits and channels from its blood vessels. Ivory has a smoother, more even texture and, in elephant and mammoth ivory, Schreger lines on cross-sections.